The Defining Of Corruption In Governments Politics Essay

The Defining Of Corruption In Governments Politics Essay Corruption as a word is derived from the Latin word corruptus meaning to break up. The use of the word emphasizes the destructive effect of corruption on the fabric of society and the situations where agents and public officers break the confidence entrusted in them Nicholls, Daniel, Polaine, Hatchard, (2006). Johnston, (2005) quoting the works of Nye, (1967); Heidenheinmer, (1970); Scott, (1972); Thompson, (1993); Thompson, (1995); Johnston, (1996); Philip, (1997); and Philip, (2002), stated that definitional issues of corruption is a matter of long-running debate and therefore it is always difficult to settle for any specific definition. He states that the decisive role of the state is reflected in most definitions of corruption, and therefore agrees that corruption is conventionally understood, and referred to, as the private wealth seeking behaviour of someone who represents the state and the public authority. It is the misuse of public resources by public officials, for private gains. The working definition used by the World Bank, Transparency International and others is that corruption is the abuse of public power for private benefit (or profit). Another widely used description is that corruption is a transaction between private and public sector actors through which collective goods are illegitimately converted into private-regarding payoffs (Heidenheimer et al. 1989:6). This point is also emphasized by Rose-Ackerman, who says corruption exists at the interface of the public and private sectors (Rose-Ackerman 1978). In Colin Nyes classical definition, corruption is behaviour that deviates from the formal duties of a public role (elective or appointive) because of private-regarding (personal, close family, private clique) wealth or status gains(Nye 1967:416). Samuel Huntington noted that where political opportunities are scarce, corruption occurs as people use wealth to buy power, and where economic opportunities are few, corruption occurs when political power is used to pursue wealth (Huntington 1968). Huntington (1968), Myrdal (1968) and Scott (1969), believes that corruption is most prevalent during the most intense phase of modernization of a country and tends to decline with institutionalization of advanced democracy (see also Pavarala, 1996). It is however argued that this view cannot explain the prevalence of corruption in advanced industrial democracies because there is now increasing evidence of political corruption and systematic influence peddling in the US and UK (Amick, 1976; Drewry, 1977; Pinto-Duschinsky, 1977; Benson, 1978; Ashworth, 1981; Johnston, 1982; Doig, 1984; Etzioni, 1984). For the purpose of this dissertation, corruption will be defined as the use of public office for private gain provided by Rose-Ackerman (1975, 1978), Becker and Stigler (1974), Klitgaard (1988, 1991), Shleifer and Vishny (1993), Myint, U, 2000; Johnson D.T Zimring F.E, 2005) and Transparency International. This in other words, involves the use of official position, rank or status by an office bearer for his personal benefit. 2.3. Forms of Corruption: There are different forms of corruption, Pedersen and Johannsen (2008); classification by typology, Roebuck and Barker (1974); Heidenheimer, (1989); Alemann (1995); Punch (200); Tserndoodov (2001); and Miller (2003). According to Shah, (2008) corruption is not manifested in one single form. Some scholars group corruption as grand corruption, petty corruption, sporadic corruption, systemic corruption or active and passive corruption base on the stages and magnitude of the malaise, while some like Robinson (2004 p.3) categorized corruption into three main forms: incidental (individual), institutional (for example, the police service) and systemic (societal). However, irrespective of the classification or level of the phenomenon, Vargas-Hernandez (2009), like many other scholars, believe that corruption can be in form of any of the following: bribery, collusion, embezzlement of public funds and theft, fraud, extortion, abuse of discretion, favouritism, clientelism, nepotism, and others. This can be presented in a pictorial form as shown in figure (1) below. Bribery Cronyism Embezzlement Extortion Forms of Corruption Nepotism Conflict of Interest Favouritism Fraud Figure 1. Forms of Corruption In various forms listed in figure (1) above, corrupt activities such as fraud and embezzlement can be undertaken by an official alone and without involvement of a second party. While others such as bribery, extortion and influence peddling involve two parties. There must be a giver and taker in a corrupt deal. The two party type of corruption can arise under a variety of circumstances either in public or private official function. 2.3.1 Bribery: Bribery is defined as the payment for a corrupt act (Zimring Johnson, 2005). A bribery corrupt act is always perpetuated by two or more individuals. Bribery requires collusion between a private citizen and a public employee (Morris, 1991). Albrecht, Albrecht, Albrecht Zimbelman (2009) says bribery involves the offering, giving, receiving, or soliciting of anything of value to influence and official act. According to Myint, (2000), bribes as one of several two party corrupt act offence, involves amongst others, government contracts to determine who gets what contract and the terms of the contract; government benefits like subsidies for importation, permits for explorations and purchase of privatized government corporations; reduction in taxable fees like import duties, custom duties, utility fees, electricity fees and income taxes for both business and private individuals, thus reducing government revenue (See also Rose-Ackerman 2005). It is also argued that bribery c an speed up the wheels of bureaucracy more smoothly and speedily (Myint, 2000); as well as influence the outcome of a legal and regulatory process. A legal definition can be found in (Nicholls, Daniel, Polaine Hatchard, 2006 p. 18). While some theorists like Leff (1964), Leys (1965), Huntington (1968) and Mendez Sepulveda (2006), see bribery under the greasing the wheels hypothesis as payment that is beneficial in alleviating the distortions caused by ill-functioning institutions and thus reducing cost associated with queues (Lui, 1985) (see also Rose-Ackerman 2005, pp. 15-16), it has been established that bribery constitute not only a threat to some countries, but a threat to the future of global security. Osborne (1997) argues that bribery undermines governments by reducing income from taxes, duties, and fees, while increasing the cost of service delivery. He posited that bribery destroys competition and thus companies that bribe their way to a contract or waiver for exploration, loads their prices to cover for the bribes. This creates a spiralling effect that distorts government policies as a result of the personal gain to be derived, subvert company cultures, destabilizes society due to resource diversion, low productivity and making controls ineffective and invariably constituting a threat to global security as a result of drug trafficking, organised crime and terrorism. The most widely quoted bribery statistic is the World Banks worldwide estimate of $1 trillion per year with the total cost of corruption estimated at more than 5% of global GDP (US $2.6 trillion), Cleveland, Favo, Frecka Owens (2010) and the economic effects and ethicality of bribery have been discussed by literally hundreds of sources including Dalton (2006), Gray and Kaufmann (1988), Nichols (1999), and Shaw (2000). 2.3.2. Fraud: Another common corrupt practice is fraud. Fraud is an act of misrepresentation or deception by way of charging for goods or services that was never delivered, changing the specifications or timing on goods and services and their expiration dates, and concealment of funds paid as fees or custom duties. Customs fraud for instance can be the under or over valuation of the value of goods or misclassification and underpayment of taxes. Fraud is the use of misleading information to induce someone to turn over the property voluntarily. According to Albrecht et al (2009 p 7), fraud is a generic term, and embraces all multifarious means which human ingenuity can devise, which are resorted to by one individual, to get an advantage over another by false representationincludes surprise, trickery, cunning and unfair ways by which another is cheated. Fraud is mostly expressed in the form of the Fraud Triangle depicting the three elements of pressure, opportunity and rationalization ( Albrecht, Wernz Williams, 1995). In the public sector therefore, bureaucrats and their private collaborators tend to defraud the public by way of contract inflation, white elephant projects, and poor quality service delivery. In the private sector, fraud is classified variously as employee fraud, vendor fraud, customer fraud, management fraud, investment scams and others (Albrecht et al, 2009). However, the focus of this research is on public sector fraud. 2.3.3. Embezzlement and Theft: These are the form of corruption that is characterized by the taking or conversion of funds, assets or other valuables for private gain. These forms of corruption involve the abuse of public trust on the asset entrusted to the individual. According to Green (2002 p. 99), embezzlement is a crime of specific intent in which a person fraudulently misappropriates or misapplies something that has been legally entrusted to that person but which he or she does not own, thereby usurping the legal owners control For instance, an official can collide with a contractor who is engaged to perform some service and embezzle some of the fund meant for the contract and encourage the contractor to provide a substandard service to be able to recoup the original cost of the contract. Embezzlement therefore is the misappropriation of funds legally entrusted to an official in their formal position as an agent, guardian or trustee. According to Albrecht et al, (2009) embezzle ment is a common type of occupational fraud in both private and public sectors. They posit that employees (or officials) can steal cash, supplies and other assets or establish dummy companies or vendors to pay for goods and services that are not actually delivered. It is however argued (Green, 2002) that determining exactly what constitute embezzlement is sometimes difficult due to legal interpretations of the difference between embezzlement and offense of criminal conversion. 2.3.4. Conflict of Interest: Conflict of interest occurs when an employee (public official) has an undisclosed economic or personal interest in a transaction that will be undertaken by his/her organization. According to Albrecht et al, (2009), conflict of interest involves the exertion of influence by the employee at the detriment of the organization for personal gain or to benefit a friend or relative even though he/she may not received a financial benefit from the act. The conundrum to the conflict of interest is a situation where a public official may have to decline engaging competent and qualified person/organization for the supply of goods or services simple because he/she has a vested economic interest in the supplying organization. However, Albrecht et al, posits that to be classified as a conflict of interest, scheme, the officials interest in the transaction must be undisclosed, and thus the organization is not aware of his/her divided loyalty. 2.3.5. Cronyism: It refers to favorable treatment of friends and associates in the distribution of resources and positions without regard to their objective qualifications and professionalism. 2.3.6. Favoritism: Generally, favouritism, nepotism and clientelism involve abuses of discretion. Such abuses, however, are governed not by the self-interest of an official but the interests of someone linked to him or her through membership of a family, political party, tribe, religious or other group. If an individual bribes an official to hire him or her, the official acts in self-interest. If a corrupt official hires a relative, he or she acts in exchange for the less tangible benefit of advancing the interests of family or the specific relative involved (nepotism). The favouring of, or discriminating against, individuals can be based on a wide range of group characteristics: race, religion, geographical factors, political or other affiliation, as well as personal or organizational relationships, such as friendship or membership of clubs or associations. Favoritism takes place when one favors or prefers acquaintances, friends and family over strangers. It becomes corruption when public (and private sector) officials unfairly distribute positions and resources to colleagues. 2.3.7. Nepotism: Nepotism is used to indicate a form of favoritism that involves family relationships. It describes situations in which a person exploits his or her power and authority to procure jobs or other favors for relatives 2.3.8. Extortion: It is the illegal demand or receipt of property or money through the use of force or threat. According to Morris (1991), extortion in contrast to bribery, is a is a situation where the public official influences the behavior of a citizen through the use of negative sanctions as a threat further to abuse authority to induce cooperation. This is also widely referred to as graft. 2.4. Historical Context of corruption in Nigeria and Britain 2.4.1. Nigeria A comparative perspective on corruption provides insight about the role of this peculiar form of crime in various cultures and stages of development (Johnson D.T. Zimring F.E, 2007). The global perception of Nigeria on corruption should therefore be seen in its proper historical context by undertaking a comparative review of the historical evolution of the country and the colonial legacy (Olaleye-Oruene, 2007). Olaleye-Oruene argues that an examination of the Nigerian traditional business ethos prior to contact with Europeans, especially the British, indicates that corruption is not a cultural norm of the Nigerian people pre-colonial. In the Nigerian culture, an inducement by one party for the purpose of gaining an advantage over a competitor would be paramount to an insult and indeed an effrontery to the party awarding the contract. However, there is little documentation on African and Nigerian commercial and administrative transactions before the advent of colonialism to support t his believe. It is therefore on this note that the considered base for any empirical write-up on corruption in Nigeria can only be done from the colonial era. In the 1700 1800s, corruption especially political corruption (Willis 2002, p.151) was seen as a major problem in Britain only partly addressed by electoral reforms in the 19th century and thus during the Balkanization of the African continent that took place in Berlin in 1884-1885, the British which took control of the Northern and Southern Nigeria, imported its legal system, education and economic culture (Olaleye-Oruene, 2007). According to Olaleye-Oruene, European values endorses corruption in view of the commonality and political and corporate corruption found in many countries both eastern and western, with Germany, Britain, Italy, France, Belgium and the Netherlands in the West and therefore the sub-culture of corruption is seen as the acceptable face of capitalism and any form of commercial transactions with the West, notably with multinationals at the time. Foreign-sponsored bribery tends to be held by many observers in developing countries as the most significant contribut ing factor to corruption (Andvig Fjeldstad, 2000). To many commentators like Bloom, (2010) Western companies constitute the main culprits of the corruption syndrome in most developing countries. Quoting Transparency International, he said that the most corrupt industries are arms, construction and oil, and many western companies are helping to line peoples pockets illegally by selling wrong equipment, and dams and roads are built in the wrong place for no better reason other than the politicians can get their kick backs. See also Tanzi, Davoodi, (1997); Hunt and Laszlo, (2005); and Svensson, (2003). This is the situation Nigeria found itself when the country was amalgamated between the south and the north in 1914. In attempting to tackle the menace of the scourge as been treated in Britain in the earlier 18th century, the then British Colonial Administration promulgated the Nigerian Criminal Code in 1916, Ch. XII, with sections 98 and 116 dealing with corruption. The Code made it an offence corruptly to give or receive any gift or other advantage as an inducement to influence the conduct of any . . . officer or servant of any public body as defined in the code. It is punishable with a maximum of 14 years imprisonment and/or fine (Olaleye-Oruene, T. 2007, p.232). However, fitting as the buck shifting may be, the Nigerian perpetrators of corruption or pen-robbers (as they are euphemistically known) have superseded the Europeans in the art of corruption by making it the lifestyle of the body politic. Corruption is no longer confined to government contracts where the perpetrators share the loot of the graft, but percolates to every nook and cranny of the civil service and local government, political hierarchy, both civil and military, and even the church. It is widely noted that the judiciary is tainted by trials settled with bribes . . . universities are tarnished by the trade in diplomas (also bribery as means of gaining entry into universities) . . . the nobility has been mocked by the sale of chieftaincy titles . . . In other words, the majority of public officials are expected to be bribed for performing the duty which constitutes the terms of contract of their employment. For instance, messengers are regarded as powerful because they contr ol the movement of files and could bury the files if anyone fails to bribe them (Olaleye-Oruene, 2007 p.234). According to BBCs Caroline Duffield in Lagos, extortion of civilians and bribery of police is a fact of life in Nigeria often taking place in public and in broad daylight (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-11001624) and the former Chairman of the Economic and Financial Crimes Commission, Nuhu Ribadu while speaking with the US Congress Financial Services Committee in May 2009, state that Nigeria have lost about $440 billion to corruption since independence in 1960. The question therefore is where did Nigeria get it wrong? Can the country continue to blame the British Colonialist considering that Britain has shed off its corruption tag of the 19th century? Several reasons have been adduced for this state of affairs such as prolonged military dictatorship; lack of political will to tackle corruption; lack of national plan; and the cultural tolerance of corruption and corrupt leadership and the absence of enforcement of the law against corruption. Corruption in public life in Nigeria manifested itself in the 1950s to 1960s with the first penal inquiry on the African Continental Bank (ACB) and Nnamdi Azikiwe affairs with a Justice Strafford Forster-Sutton commission in 1957; the Justice G.B. Coker Commission in 1962 to look into the activities of the then Western region government led by Chief Awolowo and the National Investment and Property company. However, it is widely believed that the malaise started to become a public way of life during the military regimes of General Gown, (Ministry of Defence cement importation scandal), General Obasanjo, (Missing N2.8 Billion from the Nigerian National Petroleum Corporation) and the subsequent pr omulgation of Decree No.11 of 1976 (Public officers Protection Against False Accusation) seen as the arming of corrupt government officials with immunity and a carte blanche to be above the law (Nwaobi, G.C. 2004). From the Military administration of Gen. Obasanjo in 1976 to President Obasanjo in 1999, there have been many looting of the Nigerian Commonwealth by its leaders and their cronies and such funds deposited in foreign bank accounts that may or may not ever be recovered again. The corruption activities of the Shagari civilian regime and the dictatorial military regimes of Buhari, Babangida, Abacha and even Abdulsalam are well documented in Nigeria (Nwaobi, 2004). The subject of this dissertation will not permit a detail review of the corruption cases in these regimes; however, a table highlighting some of the looted funds is attached as appendix 1. 2.4.2. Great Britain. Concern about corruption is as old as the history of government. In 350 BCE, Aristotle suggested in The Politics, To protect the treasury from being defrauded, let all money be issued openly in front of the whole city, and let copies of the accounts be deposited in various wards. The UK has widely been seen as the model of the non-corrupt industrial democracy (Adonis, 1997). However, a look into the UK history in the last few centuries will portray a society once rife with all forms of corruption. Willis (2002, p.151) quoting Lever 1971 and Denning 1981, stated that the court of King James I of England was once described in the following terms: this is a tale of extravagance, waste, corruption and vice unprecedented sums of money were squandered Titles and government offices were bought and sold. Through Monopolies, tax-farming and appropriation of public land for private purposes the entire national economy was fleeced by parasitic rulers and their cronies Also quoting Williams (1960), Willis said that corruption was the major avenue of securing election to parliament, forming government and staying in government. Therefore buying a seat in parliament out of your own resources was almost the only mode by which parliament was accessible with honour to those who had no family connection or local patron. The Anti-Bribery Act (Last Determination Act 1729, 2 Geo II c 24) called an Act for the more effectual preventing bribery and corruption in election of members to serve in Parliament; The Place Act 1742 (15 Geo II c 22); and Burkes Place Act 1782 (22 Geo III c 45) were some of the early measures taken between the century 1729 to 1832 to curb bribery and corruption in the British political and administrative system. In Britain, the practice of corruption was so rampant in the late 19th century as to necessitate the enactment of a private members bill, the Public Bodies Corrupt Practices Act 1889, in order to implement the recommendation made in 1888 in an interim report by the Royal Commission which investigated various malpractices by the Metropolitan Board of Works. In the decade either side of the First World War a succession of corruption scandals seriously clouded the government of Prime Minister David Lloyd George (Adonis, 1997) In the last half century however, Britain invariably scores highly in indices on integrity in public life despite evidence of underlying and persistent corruption (Doig, 1984, 1995, 1996) as quoted in Doig, (2004). Evidence of bribery and the misuse of public office for partisan or personal benefit has invariably been treated as episodic and personalized. When identified, such as the Poulson scandal of the 1970s; the cash -for- question scandals in the House of Commons in the 1990s; the corruption at the local government council levels like the Lambeth borough council in 1993 and the recent Expenses scandals involving MPs in 2009, cases have been subject to investigations that have dealt with the offenders while confirming the general integrity of institutions and the robustness of the procedures involved in dealing with the offences. At the same time, British political and administrative life has pragmatically so ordered its affairs that the need for corruption has been widely minim ized. Thus members of the executive and senior civil servants are unlikely even to be offered, let alone accept, bribes from government contractors while in office and from the latter half of the nineteenth, into the early twentieth century, political and administrative leaderships were able to introduce measures that precluded membership of Parliament as a means of personal profit in return for government support; required verbal disclosure of financial interests; curbed payments for honours; disengaged MPs and ministers from the spoils and patronage systems that dominated traditional politics; introduced constraints on civil servants moving to the private sector; outlawed voter bribery, and introduced anticorruption legislation for both public and private sectors (Doig, 2003). While it should be remembered that corruption and misconduct did not necessarily disappear during this period, allegations invariably provoked some form of official inquiry that was often used as a vehicle f or some general statement of the principles of conduct. It is therefore not surprising that Britain is rated highly above Nigeria in the Transparency Internationals corruption perception index. 2.5. Theoretical Empirical Works on Corruption: Corruption generally has attracted a great deal of attention in both academic and non-academic circles as reflected through an increased number of studies devoted to the topics. There is a growing body of theoretical and empirical studies within the economics literature examining the factors contributing to corruption and corruptibility within the public service. This will be looked into as below: 2.5.1. Theories on Corruption: Existing theories fail to differentiate various forms of corruption. Morris, (1991 p. 10), states that most theoretical arguments posit a major causal agent as producing corruption; non really specifies what type of corruption may result or what specific factors may relate to different corrupt acts This could be as a result of the difficult nature of defining what really constitute corruption. According to deGraaf (2007), most definitions of corruption are focused on social constructivism and thus it is based on what is considered as corruption at a certain place and at a particular time. In his studies of corruption in the Western countries, he theorized six causes of corruption which will also be considered below: Principal Agent Theory: One of the standard frameworks used in the theoretical analysis of corruption is the principal-agent model. A principal can be a person or an organization, in the case of this research, a government. The model holds that on behalf of the principal, the agent interacts with a client and thus may commit corruption if in his analysis, the benefits outweighs the costs. Using this model researchers like (Bardhan, 1997; Klitgaard, 1988; Rose-Ackerman, 1978) have investigated the trade-offs between the expected costs and benefits of corrupt acts. The reasons for the considered economic benefit may include such as lower wages (Becker and Stigler, 1974; Chand and Moene, 1999; Mookherjee and Png, 1995), social welfare (Becker and Stigler, 1974; Khalil and Lawarree, 1995; Mookherjee and Png, 1995) and greed (de Graaf, 2007). The Principal-Agent theory considers corruption at the micro-model and the agent makes his/her decisions based on a benefit versus costs and thus i f the agent chooses not to be corrupt, they receive a payoff that is the sum of their regular pay plus the moral satisfaction of not being a corrupt. According to Klitgaard as quoted by Chan (2000), the cost depends on his/her own ethical, cultural and religious standards; influence of peers and colleagues; the size and magnitude of the bribe and responsibilities to the principal. Economic Rent and corruption equation: All economic agents are maximizing their individual utility that is personal welfare (wealth). Therefore, selfish interests of economic agents are the basic motive for economic transactions between them. A common thread in these models is that the government is led by a benevolent dictator (the principal), who aims to motivate government officials (agents) to act with integrity in the use of public resources (see Banfield 1975; Becker 1968, 1983; Becker and Stigler 1974; Klitgaard 1988, 1997; Rose-Ackerman 1975, 1978). Resources are allocated to the activities that provide the greatest returns on investment (an allocation decision). Rent by economic definition is a factor of income above the competitive returns (opportunity costs) of the factor and thus because rent appropriations will maximize individual utility (welfare), economic agents are engaged in the rent-seeking process, the process of creation and distribution (appropriation) of rent. Theoretically speaking, rent can be created in a few distinctive ways, but in reality the most significant rent generator is government intervention through the violation of free market operations by way of regulations. In his classical Corruption Equation, Kiltgaard, (1998) postulates that: Corruption Equation C=R+D A Where C= Corruption, R= Economic Rent D= Discretionary powers A= Accountability. In the equation, Kiltgaard posits that Corruption (C) will exist if more opportunities for Economic Rent ( R) exist in a country and that the greater the discretionary powers (D) granted to administrators (bureaucrats, leaders, politicians etc) the more the chances of corruption. However, the equation states that the more administrators are held Accountable (A) for their actions, the less will be corruption. This is designated by the minus sign in front of A. Stated differently, the equation tells us that a fertile ground for growth of a thoroughly corrupt system will emerge in a country if it satisfies the following three conditions: It has a large number of laws, rules, regulations, and administrative orders to restrict business and economic activities and thereby creates huge opportunities for generating economic rent, and especially if these restrictive measures are complex and opaque and applied in a selective, secretive, inconsistent and non-transparent way; Administrators are granted large discretionary powers with respect to interpreting rules, are given a lot of freedom to decide on how rules are to be applied, to whom and in what manner they are to be applied, are vested with powers to amend, alter, and rescind the rules, and even to supplement the rules by invoking new restrictive administrative measures and procedures; and There are no effective mechanisms and institutional arrangements in the country to hold administrators accountable for their actions. The Public/Rational Choice Theory: Like most white-collar crimes, corruption has been seen as a crime of rational choice where the causal chain is that of an individual making a rational decision that leads to a predetermined outcome (de Graaf, 2007). According to de Graaf, the individual corrupt official tries to maximize his utility by rationally calculating when to become corrupt if its expected advantages outweigh its expected disadvantages (a combination of possible penalty and the chance of being caught). Rose-Ackeman (1978), posits that public officials are corrupt simply because they perceive that the potential benefits of corruption exceeds that potential costs. See also Klitgaard, (1988), Gambetta, 1993). This theory is supported by works of Hirschi and Gottfredson (1987) Shover and Hochstetler (2006), and Simpson (2009) in their rational choice theories on white-collar crimes. The rational choice theory, unlike others concentrates on a specific situation of an agent who ca lculates the pros and cons ignoring the larger social context that breeds corruption. Its focus on the officials calculation of the ensuing trade-off as a motivation leaves a gapping question of why some officials especially in the Western countries are not corrupt. The Bad Apple (Anomie) Theory: This theory also looks at the level of an individual for the causal effect of corruption. Most studies on

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The Graduate and Plastics The Graduate is a 1967 film directed by Mike Nichols who won an Oscar for his direction. This hit of the 60's focuses on the development and the maturing of the ultra-naïve college graduate Benjamin Braddock. This movie is about "just one word...Plastics." Mr. McQuire sums up this entire movie when he tells Ben that there is "a great future in plastics." In this film the relationships, except the one between Ben and Elaine, are like plastic because they are not real, they are molded, and they are artificial. The relationship between Mr. and Mrs. Robinson is shaky at best. There is no love in their marriage; in fact, the only reason there is a marriage is because Mrs. Robinson became pregnant with Elaine. They don't "sleep in the same room" and in order for her to see Ben she just "walks out" of the house. Ben finds this shocking because to an outsider their marriage seems solid and real but it isn't. Their marriage is like plastic because although it appears solid, it is fab...

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Also, prostitution is often referred to as â€Å"the world’sRead MoreThe Revolution Of New Orleans1453 Words   |  6 Pagesforty-nine, the whores in fifty-one; and when they got together they produced the native son.† This sheds some light as to how long prostitution has been a part of America. Prostitution dates back to the beginning of colonization in the United States, but wasn’t considered a legal act. At the time the laws just didn’t acknowledge what a prostitute or the act of prostitution itself was. In 1721, the French government sh ipped eighty women to the colony of New Orleans that housed seven hundred men to promoteRead MoreSex Trafficking And The United States1672 Words   |  7 Pagesterm human sex trafficking, they think of heinous acts that take place in other countries where adults, children, girls and boys are exploited to perform sexual acts in exchange for money or goods against their will. They think it typically occurs in places that are less developed than the United States. However, the reality of this horrific crime is that it is taking place in the United States, and it occurs more and more each and every day. Young girls are not solely the victim of human sex traffickingRead MoreEssay about The Adult Sex Industry 948 Words   |  4 Pagesdiscussing the adult sex industry one must understand the differences between human trafficking, sex slavery, and prostitution. An individual also has to taken into consideration why another individual would choose prostitution as means of income verses any other job that doesn’t include the buying and selling of sex. One must be able to empathize with the individuals who choose prostitution and be able to take into consideration some factors that may lead an individual to prostitution as a means of economicRead MoreLegalization Of Prostitution And Prostitution1612 Words   |  7 PagesLegalization of Prostitution Prostitution law varies widely from country to country, and between jurisdictions within a country. Prostitution or sex work is legal in some parts of the world and regarded as a profession, while in other parts it is a crime punishable by death. In many jurisdictions prostitution is illegal. In other places prostitution itself is legal, but surrounding activities are illegal. In other jurisdictions prostitution is legal and regulated. In most jurisdictions whichRead MoreHuman Trafficking and Exploitation973 Words   |  4 Pageswhich are sex slaves. Millions more have escaped, or died from assault or sexually transmitted diseases over the past twenty years. If serious action is not taken immediately, millions more will become victims. Human sex trafficking is a form of slavery and involuntary servitude which results in major human rights contraventions. Sex trafficking contains individuals profiting from the sexual extortion of others and has severe physical and psychological consequences for its victims.1 Prostitution is theRead MoreProstitution Is Legal For Human Trafficking1010 Words   |  5 Pagesâ€Å"Are you serious? Girls are not just objects, they are human beings just like everyone else.† That disgusts me, are the thoughts I was having when I saw that Thailand has a total of around three million sex workers in their country, and the number is increasing. Prostitution is legal but human trafficking is not. How can we make prostitution legal and then not expect is to lead to more human trafficking around the world. Prostitution is the practice or occupation of engaging in sexual activity withRead MoreWhy Prostitution Is Prostitution1661 Words   |  7 PagesAs I stated in my last paper, sex trafficking is a form of human trafficking that uses sexual exploitation amongst mainly women and girls. Human trafficking has become a global issue as 2.5 million people are being trafficked worldwide (Farley, n.d.). Sex trafficking can be exploited in your eyes known as prostitution. According to Laws.Com, â€Å"the most common type labor in human trafficking, is prostitution†. Prostitution is the practice or occupation of engaging in promiscuous sexual relations especiallyRead MoreSex Trafficking Is A Serious Problem1334 Words   |  6 Pagesdark, sex trafficking is a serious problem within our district that often goes unnoticed and ignored. Lurking underneath the mask of common businesses or seemingly normal neighbors, sex trafficking is prevalent not only throughout the world, but in our very own communities. Just months ago in May, Galveston County residents were shocked to hear that four Galveston men were charged with federal charges for their alleged involvement for conspiring to recruit, entice, and harbor minors for sex trafficking

Employers Should Use Social Network Profiles in the Hiring...

Social networks are increasing dramatically every year. Employers are turning to social networks because it is a tool to screen job applicant’s profiles. According to a survey conducted by jobvite.com (2013), 94 % of employers use social media profiles to recruit job applicants. This trend assists the applicants and recruiters. Job applicants should be judged by their social network profiles because social media give positive image about the candidate, prove the information in the resume, and help to identify if the person fits the culture of the company or not. Social network profiles are the most essential tool to judge job applicants because it reflects a good image of the job applicants. For example, if the company is recruiting a†¦show more content†¦This way of evaluating applicants is significant specially when hiring the right person. If a person has skills and qualifications, he/she will enter the first step of finding a job. Also, employees want to show other characteristics to employers in order to convince them that they are the right people for the right place. For example, when job applicants show a high-level of motivation and respect to other people, they will inform the recruiter of their characteristics. Job applicants should be evaluated based on their social network profiles because it confirms that applicants would fit the organization’s culture in term of the objectives and activities or not. (Should You Use Facebook to Pre-Screen Job Applicants?, n.d). Social media profiles could be extension and reference of applicant’s resume. Most Facebook profiles could be used as an asset for job applicants. It is considered as an extension of their resumes. It shows person’s enthusiasm and knowledge for certain skills and interests. For example, a job applicant who is applying for a position at Veterinary clinic can show a range of posts, photos, video with animals so it confirms his/her passion in working in this area. (Should You Use Facebook to Pre-Screen Job Applicants?, n.d). What is more, LinkedIn provides professional network where recruiters can search a name and find more information about the candidate easily. This way enables employers to look closely to people’sShow MoreRelatedSocial Medi An Effective Tool For Employers1621 Words   |  7 PagesSocial Media: An Effective Tool for Employers in the Hiring Process United States citizens regard the freedom of speech as one of their most cherished rights. This freedom is guaranteed by the First Amendment in the United States Constitution. Since its adoption in 1791, Americans have reveled in the privilege of saying what they please without fear of the government’s consequential interference. Never before have individuals possessed such an enormous opportunity to have their voices heard thanRead MoreThe Impact Of Social Media On Hiring Process1234 Words   |  5 PagesJill Cooper Torres English 105 9 September 2014 Social Media In The Hiring Process The effects of social media are inescapable. While Facebook and other social media networks have people sharing even the most mundane events of life, the popular websites also bring into question serious legal issues, particularly in the hiring practices of companies. The access of hiring managers to reach into private lives and reveal personal information of a potential employee is not only tempting, but now commonRead MoreHow Social Networking Sites Have Become Powerful Tools For Recruitment And Hiring1440 Words   |  6 PagesSocial media websites have become powerful tools for recruitment and hiring in many organizations. Some organizations rely on these networks to attract and screen talent. According to Davison and Maraist (2011), â€Å"A recent survey by the Society for Human Resource Management reported that in 2006, only 21% of organizations had used social networking sites as an HR tool, but in 2008, 44% had used social networking sites for HR†¦the same survey rep orted that 34% of organizations currently use social networkingRead MoreThe Effect Of Increasing Use Of Social Media On The Workplace1446 Words   |  6 Pagesa report about the effect of increasing use of Social Media in the workplace in Australia. This is not the use of Social Media as a MARKETING tool. The world of social networking services is rapidly increasing, and it is commonly used in the workplace in Australia. Boyd and Ellison (2007), referring to their journal Social Network Sites defines social network sites as: â€Å"Web-based services that allow individuals to construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, articulate a listRead MoreSocial Media And Social Networking1485 Words   |  6 PagesIV. Generations in the Workforce The fast paced evolution of social media and social networking has required businesses to quickly adapt to avoid falling behind their competition and their customers. A unique feature of the evolving workplace is that entire corporations are involved, it’s not only the younger generation or only the experienced generation but rather, it affects everyone. This new frontier adds value in many ways including faster service, more direct customer feedback, as well asRead MoreSocial Media As An Aid For Human Resource Management1616 Words   |  7 PagesThe world of social networking services is rapidly increasing, and it is commonly used in the workplace in Australia. Boyd, and Ellison, (2007), referring to their journal Social Network Sites define social network sites as: â€Å"Web-based services that allow individuals to construct a public or semi-public profile within a bounded system, articulate a list of other users with whom they share a connection, and view and traverse their list of connections and those made by others within the system.† pRead MoreJobs for the Future Employee1360 Words   |  6 Pages{Getting {a job|hired|employed} in environmental {companies|firms|associations}.| How to {make|get|achieve} {a position|job|hired} in the environmental {companies|firms|associations}.| Get {hired|employed|selected} by {employers|leaders|owners} of the companies that are {dominating|leading|commanding} the environmental sector} {You are one of those students who have graduated recently and are willing to join in any company that is working on the sector related to environment.| You have an intentionRead MorePersonal Branding1628 Words   |  7 Pagesbrand† for ourselves by joining a social network and using our page as a billboard to advertise our talents and goals. Developing a personal brand makes us a more valuable asset, whether to the company we work for, a potential employer, or your own enterprise. This paper discusses the development and deployment of â€Å"personal branding† through appropriate social media platforms such as LinkedIn, Facebook and Twitter. It gives and insight on strategies for using social media for career advantage, privacyRead MoreAn Analysis Of Media In Social Media862 Words   |  4 Pagesmarket oneself and grow their career. The social applications have not only expanded the job market but have also developed tools that marketers can use to develop their own bu siness consulting services online. The primary social media channel of choice will be LinkedIn, which is a professional networking site with over half a billion active e users engaging in different forums and LinkedIn groups. It is a site that over 90% of recruitment firms and 85% of hiring managers utilize to find candidates (ShinRead MoreTechnology Has Made Many Advancements1648 Words   |  7 Pagesbirth of social media which according to Hale (2015) began 1997 with a website called Six Degrees. This site allowed their users to create a profile where they can connect with other users within site. One could also post bulletin boards. But it died down in 2001 after hitting a record high 3.5 million users (Kirkpatrick, 2010). One of the major reasons of Six Degrees shutting down was the lack of users aware of internet networking in that time. It served as a stepping stone to many social media sites

Television Addiction Essay - 1028 Words

Television Addiction Marie Winn makes a convincing argument that watching too much television can be considered an addiction. Television has become a way of life for most families. Television viewing is so overwhelmingly prevalent nowadays that living without TV is often considered an extreme deprivation. TVs are everywhere, whether you are in a hospital, auto shop, or in the dentist’s office, there’s always a television by the waiting area. It’s a useful tool to help you from the boredom of waiting. Sure, people got other things to do and there are magazines lying around the table but people are more intrigue on what they see on the Jerry Springer Show. Television has been a part of most Americans’ lives and many spend hours of their†¦show more content†¦Drugs are a lot similar to television because it gives us temporary relief and relaxation. With drugs or alcohol, when the high fades, users want to get that high again. Same thing with television, people get so accu stomed to having it, they can’t stop wanting it. Once you are hooked on the program you are watching, you just can’t miss watching and wanting more. Alcoholics or drug addicts lead a damaged life both socially and emotionally. It prevents users from maintaining relationships with their family and friends. Watching too much television has a negative effect on people’s lives. When viewers stare at the tube, it hardly requires any sort of interaction with others, so the viewers are less social with others. In many cases, television can lead to less quality time for most families. Families now spend more time watching television than engage in meaningful conversations with one another. â€Å"It weakens relationships by reducing and sometimes eliminating normal opportunities for talking, for communicating.†Ã‚ ¹ (582) The personal connection between families is lost. It is a lot similar with drug use because users tend to isolate themselves and lose their sense of â€Å"belonging† when they are using. Prolonged users are likely to get depressed and become lonesome. Also, they try not to be seen in public when they are using. Being on the tube most of the time prevents viewers fromShow MoreRelated television addiction Essay1578 Words   |  7 Pages Addicted to Television nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp; The temptations that can disrupt human life are often caused by pure indulgences. That which we most desire may ultimately harm and destroy us. For example, no one has to drink alcohol. Realizing when a diversion has gotten out of control, such as alcohol, is one of the greatest challenges of life. These excessive cravings do not necessarily involve physical substances. Gambling can be compulsive, leading to great financial distress; sex canRead More Television Addiction Essay1004 Words   |  5 Pagesnbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;For roughly sixty years television has been a part of most Americans lives. For some, it is mainly a source of information. For others, television takes on a much more significant role. Many Americans spend hours of their daily life in front of the tube, but are the people entwined in the plot of the average sit com., or are they trapped by the clutches of perpetual, mind- numbing entertainment. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;Addiction is a strong word. It is now even consideredRead More Television Addiction related to Children Essay703 Words   |  3 Pages According to Rita Dove, the author of â€Å"Loose Ends,† and â€Å"Television Addiction,† by Marie Winn. Both authors often share the same the views about television. But television addiction is more expressed in Ms. Winn’s essay. However, Ms. Dove speaks of a more personal experience with her daughter, and how the television is an issue in her household. Although, Ms.Dove says in her essay, â€Å"For years the following scene would play daily at our house: Home from school, my daughter would have her backpackRead MoreReview of Television Addiction is no Mere Metaphor Essay examples603 Words   |  3 PagesTelevision Addiction Is No Mere Metaphor Have you ever heard the expression love hurts? Sometimes its the things that we want most that can hurt us. In Television Addiction Is No Mere Metaphor, an article published in Scientific American on February 23, 2002 by Robert Kubey and Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi, we see how this expressions meaning has some truth to it. The things that we are addicted to are not necessities but are desires instead. Kubey and Csikszentmihalyi give the best exampleRead MoreTelevision Addiction1606 Words   |  7 PagesAddicted to Television The temptations that can disrupt human life are often caused by pure indulgences. That which we most desire may ultimately harm and destroy us. For example, no one has to drink alcohol. Realizing when a diversion has gotten out of control, such as alcohol, is one of the greatest challenges of life. These excessive cravings do not necessarily involve physical substances. Gambling can be compulsive, leading to great financial distress; sex can become obsessive, often alteringRead More The Negative Impact of Exposing Children to Media Violence Essay1448 Words   |  6 Pageswill limit the definition of (mass) media to television, and, subsequently, violent (mass) media to television programs that contain violent acts. By children, I will be referring to people of age 18 and below who live in the U.S., since this group is the focus of the majority of the research data that I have used. I will begin my argument by acknowledging a counter argument to my position. I will then go on to disc uss the negative effects of television on children. These effects include an increaseRead MoreHow Technology Has Changed Our Lives1217 Words   |  5 Pageswatched a television. Televisions are so familar to many people. It is one of the blockbuster inventions of all time. Back in ten years ago, the television is how people get the news, and how they entertain themselve, not a computer. Computers in ten years ago were a comlicated machine to use. Even in the twenty first century, the computers or many other high technology machines have much more advance features than a television, but they can be seen as present-day duplicates of televisions. MostlyRead MoreThe Importance Of Television In Fahrenheit 451 By Ray Bradbury997 Words   |  4 PagesYour average American spends 5 hours a day watching television. Fahrenheit 451 by Ray Bradbury is a science fiction novel where the characters spend a majority of their time in their tv parlor. Taken as a whole, television is a source of evi l in 2017. First, television poses a distraction from real life both in Fahrenheit 451 and in present 2017. In the chase scene, Montag demonstrates that people are so caught in television they forget or don’t know reality. It says on page 131,† With an effortRead More Affluenza: An American Epidemic Essay examples852 Words   |  4 Pages affluenza is a compulsive addiction to shopping, which can be cured by spending less time consuming and more time enjoying life. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;As the majority of parents work longer hours then other parents did in the past to support their families, children are left at home under the supervision of a television set. The television set constantly teaches children how to be good consumers. Advertisements which appear on television are designed to make childrenRead MoreViolence in the Media Essays684 Words   |  3 PagesFarnsworth was the true inventor of television in 1927. He had no idea that thirty-five years later his inventions would not only be in ninety percent of Americans homes, but also strongly effect everyone that watched it. Following the introduction of television into the United States, the annual homicide rate increased by ninety-three percent(Journal of the American Medical Association). With the invention of television came the job of broadcasting shows on to the television. Broadcasters soon found what

A small scale free essay sample

A small scale investigation into the development of ‘self concept’ in children, based on the findings of Rosenberg (1979), using 2 participants of different age ranges. Abstract This investigation looks at the self descriptions of two child participants and how they develop with age using the findings of Rosenberg (1979) as a reference. Rosenberg found that the self descriptions of younger children, physical qualities were more prevalent, whereas older children focused on their inner beliefs and character attributes. An open ended style of interview was used to question the two participants.The answers given were then categorised into the attributes found by Rosenberg; Physical (P), Character(C), Relationship(R), and Inner (I). Rosenberg’s theory of ‘Locus of Self’ in which the extent to which a child relies on others when judging themselves, was also investigated, with Rosenberg’s findings that as a child ages the more self aware they become a s a resource. My findings agreed with Rosenberg’s, in that with age , self concept develops however my findings did not coincide with Rosenberg’s beliefs that self locus shifts from others to self with age, with the investigation showing no change .Introduction The study investigates the self-descriptions of two children of differing ages, and looks at them in relation to the findings of Rosenberg (1979). Rosenberg believed that younger children used physical activities and characteristics to describe themselves whereas older children used their relationship and parts of their inner feelings to describe themselves. In Rosenberg’s study he interviewed a selection of 8 -18 year olds, randomly chosen from 25 schools in Baltimore, USA.He asked the participants to describe themselves using a â€Å"who am I† lay out. The answers were then explored further to include feelings of pride/shame, their similarities/differences to others, etc. He then categorised the answers into P hysical (P), character (C), Relationships (R), and Inner attributes (I). Using these categories he looked for common patterns across the age ranges. Method Design The study is intended to replicate that of Rosenberg (1979), using a questionnaire (Appendix A), designed by the Open University, similar to that of Rosenberg.The questionnaire will produce answers to the statement ‘Who am I’? , producing a list of self descriptors about each child. The answers gathered would ultimately be used and characteristics into one of the four groups found by Rosenberg. (Appendix B) Following this, using the completed questionnaire, a series of open ended questions based on the answers provided were pursued to further explain the self perceptions. This provided information regarding self concept, and its development and social determination.This would help elaborate and hoped to find reasoning to Rosenberg’s ‘locus of self knowledge’ Participants Two children took part. One female, one male. The female is age 8 years old, and attends primary school. The male is a 16 year old secondary school student. First names were used throughout the investigation. The researchers were unknown to the participants. Materials ‘Who am I’ questionnaire ( Appendix A) Pen Audio recording equipment Procedure The participants were aware of the nature of the study and its purposes.They were informed that there were no right or wrong answers. The interviews were carried out within the school locale and within the normal schooling hours. The 8 year old was interviewed in a building adjacent to her school, in which she took part in P. E regularly there. The 16 year old was interviewed in a small interview room opposite the secretary’s office. During the interviews a sound recordist and a producer were present as well as a classroom assistant in the young girl’s interview.The participants were asked to compete a list of self descriptors headed ‘Who am I’, to which an open ended series of questions structured around the ‘who am I’ answers, followed to help elaborate. The participants were thanked for their help with the study. Results The results of the questions ‘Who am I’ were categorised into one of the four of Rosenberg’s categories. (Appendix B) and then the totals were added for each category. These totals were in turn, worked into percentages. These percentages are shown in a chart. Appendix C). The percentage scores for the category physical decreases from 100% to 45% across the 8 year difference. Participant A, Annie scored 100% in physical attributes. None of the participants’ answers were interpreted as scoring in the characteristic or relationships categories, but participant B, Adam scored the majority, 55% of his answers in the ‘inner ‘section. These results collated would concur with Rosenberg’s findings that with age, ones self descriptors move away from physical attributes to more personal beliefs.However the findings failed to produce evidence to correspond with Rosenberg’s locus of self knowledge. The younger participant believed that her mother and teachers were the source of information when asked about her schooling etc, as too did the older participant, which is not in keeping with Rosenberg’ original findings that with age we are able to rely on our own idea of self rather than another authoritative person, like parents or teachers. Discussion This small scale investigation has not wholly produced the results hoped for.The conclusions from the self descriptors were that physic al traits were prominent in both ages but more so in that of the younger participant. They showed with age a child switches to more personal inner believes and desires, which to an extent would assume that Rosenberg’s findings were correct, although our sample only looks at two participants. The results of the locus of self knowledge questions did not however concur with that of Rosenberg as he put forward the notion that with age we switch from getting knowledge of one selves from authoritative figures to believing that we ourselves are the key.The results showed that both participants had yet to sway away from gaining that information from parents etc. The questions regarding ‘who knows you better’, were centred round appropriate situations like at school, a teacher. Participant one showed a slight understanding, in that she answered, it depends what they said (16. 28), showing, perhaps that she thought she would know better. But this was not exclusive to all the questions. Difficulties in reproducing the study were apparent, as such a small sample was analysed, the results could not be over generalised.